Palestine, a crossroads of civilizations, religions, and empires, boasts a rich tapestry of cultures and histories that date back four millennia. The region, nestled along the eastern Mediterranean between modern-day Lebanon and Egypt, has always thrived as a multicultural, multiethnic, and multireligious area of the world. It has seen the rise and fall of empires, the spread of religions, and the ebb and flow of different ethnicities, all contributing to its complex historical fabric.

In the 19th century, however, this uninterrupted continuity of history faced an unprecedented challenge. A group of white European colonists, known as Zionists, aimed to establish a Jewish state within the region. This marked the beginning of a systematic drive to displace Palestine’s indigenous people and supplant them with European settlers, a process that ignited the long-standing Arab-Israeli conflict.

While the politics surrounding this conflict may stir controversy, this article seeks to present an evidence-based, historical perspective. We believe that understanding the past is crucial for navigating the path to a brighter future and rectifying historical injustices.

This exploration of the 4,000-year-old history of Palestine is an attempt to illuminate the complexities of this region’s past and present, far removed from the oversimplified narratives that often dominate public discourse.

The Philistines and Ancient Palestine

Dating back to the Late Bronze Age, approximately 3,200 years ago, the roots of Palestine can be traced. This understanding has been reinforced and reshaped by multiple archaeological discoveries that often challenge prevailing views of history. One such groundbreaking discovery took place in 2017 when a 3,000-year-old Philistine graveyard was unearthed near modern-day Ashkelon in western Israel. While the existence of the Philistines in current-day Palestine and Israel is widely recognized, the discovery of the graveyard was an extraordinary revelation. It effectively challenged the Israeli theory that the Philistines were invading pirates from the Aegean Sea. Five inscriptions found at the graveyard reading “Peleset,” an early written form of “Palestine,” provided compelling evidence that the Philistines were indigenous to the region.

The name Philistines gradually evolved into “Palestinians.” Further proof of the existence of indigenous Philistines is found in ancient texts such as an Egyptian scroll dating back to the same era as the 3,000-year-old graveyard. The text mentions the Philistines as one of the neighboring peoples the Egyptians battled. The mere existence of this text contradicts the biblical Canaanite narrative that has been propagated since the nineteenth century by Zionists claiming the region of Palestine. While Canaan indisputably existed as a region, historical evidence reveals that “Canaan” is a biblical term referring to Phoenicia, a civilization corresponding to modern-day Lebanon. Interestingly, this term was only utilized to describe the region for a brief period around 1300 BC.

South of Phoenicia was a region known as Philistia, which after the eighth and seventh centuries BC, was used to designate the entire southern Levantine region, corresponding to modern Israel, Palestine, and even southern Lebanon in later periods. This region ceased being referred to by ancient names such as Canaan and came to be known as Philistia.

The Philistines, as we entered the Iron Age in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, had built a sophisticated urban civilization in this region. Renowned for their advanced shipbuilding techniques, they also demonstrated artistic finesse through the pottery, metalwork, and ivory carvings that have been uncovered in archaeological excavations throughout historic Palestine. During this era, many ancient Palestinian cities came into existence, such as Ghazzah, ‘Asgalan, and Isdud — known today as Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod. However, it’s noteworthy that the original Palestinian inhabitants of Ashkelon and Ashdod were expelled by Israel in 1948.

With their city-states resembling those found in ancient Greek civilization, the Philistines established extensive trade networks with Egypt, Phoenicia, and Arabia. These activities not only sustained the economy of ancient Palestine but also encouraged a multicultural and polytheistic society.

Palestine under Greek and Roman Rule

As time passed, ancient Palestine continued to flourish under Greek and Roman rule. By the fifth century BC, the modern cognate of Philistia – Palestina in Greek, and Palestine in Latin – started to dominate as the name of the region lying between modern-day Lebanon and Egypt. This nomenclature persisted for the next 1,200 years, until the Islamic conquest in 637 AD. Prominent Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his detailed treatises, used this term in the fourth century BC. Herodotus, often referred to as the “Father of History,” portrayed fifth-century BC Palestine as a polytheistic, trade-rich region. The Arabs residing in the southern port cities of Palestine controlled the frankincense trade route extending to India. This granted Palestine considerable wealth and status, along with eastern spices and luxury goods.

Under Roman rule, specifically from 135 to 390 AD, the region was known as Syria Palaestina. Written records from this era reveal the multicultural nature of Palestine, where Christianity was practiced by Arabic, Greek, and Aramaic speakers. However, Greek and Aramaic speakers were also adherents of Judaism, and the region was home to Greek and Latin-speaking polytheists who worshipped an array of gods.

As the history of Roman Palestine unfolded, the region’s name gradually transitioned from Syria Palaestina to simply Palestine. This is evident in the literature of the time, particularly in the works of Greco-Jewish philosopher Philo and Roman geographer Pomponius Mela. Pomponius, writing in 43 AD, described the geography of the region in detail, even mentioning the Arabs of Palestine and the “mighty city” of Gaza.

During the Roman period, Palestine’s infrastructure and urbanization expanded, reflecting its importance to the Roman administration. Interestingly, the name “Jerusalem” was nearly forgotten during this epoch. Following the Hellenistic tradition of renaming cities, Emperor Hadrian gave Jerusalem the new name “Aelia Capitolina”, with “Aelia” being Hadrian’s second name and “Capitolina” referencing the chief god in the Roman pantheon of deities. Records from Palestinian Arabs reveal that they adopted the Arabized name “Iliya” for the city well before the Islamic conquest. Even into the tenth century, the term was still used alongside a new Arabic name for the city — “Bayt al-Maqdis,” or “the Holy City.” This reflects the deep historical roots and multicultural history of Palestine, enriched and shaped by various civilizations over the millennia.

Byzantine Palestine and the Ascendancy of Christianity and Arabs

The Byzantine era marked a significant shift in Palestine’s history, characterized by the rise of Christianity and the increasing influence of Arabs in power. The birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth, Palestine found renewed significance when Christianity was adopted as the state religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century. The region was then divided into three administrative regions by the Christian Byzantine Roman Empire: Palestina Prima, Palestina Secunda, and Palestina Salutaris reflecting the Christian Trinity concept and corresponding to present-day central, northern, and southern Palestine, respectively.

These divisions did not imply complete separation, as the unity among these regions continued culturally, religiously, and politically until the Muslim era in the seventh century. Collectively known as Greater Palestine, the region became globally renowned for its bustling cities, spectacular architecture, sizable population, philosophical centers, and extensive libraries.

By some estimates, Palestine was home to up to 1.5 million residents during the Byzantine period. Around 100,000 of these inhabitants lived in Caesarea Maritima, the cosmopolitan capital of Palestina Prima, which hosted a vibrant mix of Greeks, Arabic and Aramaic-speaking Christians, Jews, Samaritans, and even polytheistic Arabs.

Prominent early Christian philosophical figures, such as Origen, resided in this city in the third century and played instrumental roles in establishing the Library of Caesarea. With a collection of 30,000 manuscripts at its peak, this library was second in size only to the Library of Alexandria in Egypt, making Caesarea one of the most important cities of Classical Antiquity.

The culture of philosophic inquiry and learning permeated throughout Palestinian society, with basic education, spanning Greek, Latin, rhetoric, law, and philosophy, widely accessible, even in villages. This education aimed at producing able administrators and leaders for church and state structures.

The Byzantine era also witnessed an expansion of Palestine’s Arab population. Archaeological evidence suggests the presence of Arabs in Palestine 500 years before the birth of Jesus. By the early third century, the Arab population had grown with the influx of Christian Arabs migrating from Yemen, located on the Arabian Peninsula’s southern coast. These Arabs’ descendants would rule over Palaestina Secunda and Tertia, centuries before the advent of Islam in the seventh century.

The Muslim Conquest and the Flourishing of Palestine

In 637 AD, the Muslim conquest sparked a transformation in Palestine, leading to significant prosperity, further Arabization, and Islamization. The Arabic language, following this conquest, became the primary language of the region, a status it has maintained for over 1,300 years. The region adopted its modern Arabic name, Filastin, which is derived from the ancient Philistia. Alongside Dimashq or Damascus, Filastin constituted a core province of the burgeoning Muslim empire, also known as the “Caliphate.”

The process of Islamization unfolded simultaneously with the spread of Arabic. Arabization was not a new concept, with the Christian Arab population of Palestine expanding and acquiring political power over several centuries. Both Islamization and Arabization were accepted without significant resistance by locals, as the linguistic shift from Aramaic to the closely related Arabic was fairly smooth. Similarly, given that Islam shared its monotheistic roots with Christianity and Judaism, conversions to Islam typically faced less conflict than those in polytheistic regions conquered by Muslim armies.

This peaceful transition was facilitated by the new Muslim rulers’ policy of religious and cultural tolerance towards Palestine’s Christian and Jewish residents. Under Muslim rule, Palestine underwent a period of intense urbanization, with Jerusalem emerging as the epicenter. The holy city was revered as the third most sacred place in Islam, after Mecca and Medina, prompting the construction of grand religious monuments such as the still-standing Dome of the Rock in 691 AD.

The allure of Jerusalem was so profound that Muslim rulers contemplated designating it as the capital of their empire, over Damascus. Contrary to some narratives portraying early Muslim Palestine as a region in decline, historical records present a different story. Palestine’s economy thrived during this era, outstripping any previous benchmarks. According to the tax records of the early Caliphate, Palestine was the wealthiest region in the Levant. Palestinian exports of olive oil, wine, soap, and glassware (crafted by Arab Jews) found eager markets throughout the Mediterranean and even in Europe.

This period of Muslim rule ushered in a “Golden Age” for Palestine, transforming it into a technologically and culturally advanced region. When European crusaders invaded in 1099, they were taken aback by the sophistication of Palestinian society, which markedly surpassed the development levels of their native European towns and cities.

After the European Crusaders were removed, the Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties governed Palestine.

After the European Crusaders h